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A microprocessor is typically found in a desktop PC or laptop and contains a CPU and an external memory interface plus various I/O buses to connect to the outside world such as SPI, I2C, UART, USB, LCD and others. A microprocessors will also have an external crystal to provide a clock.
Arduino programs are written in C or C++, however many of the details are hidden from the user: only two functions (called by the system) need to be defined to make a program that continually loops (which is typically for embedded programs)
